قالوا يا ذَا القَرنَينِ إِنَّ يَأجوجَ وَمَأجوجَ مُفسِدونَ فِي الأَرضِ فَهَل نَجعَلُ لَكَ خَرجًا عَلىٰ أَن تَجعَلَ بَينَنا وَبَينَهُم سَدًّا
They said: ‘O Dhū al-Qarnayn! Indeed, Gog and Magog are causing corruption in the land. Shall we pay you a tribute on condition that you build a barrier between them and us?’
EXEGESIS
Yaʾjūj and maʾjūj (Gog and Magog) are non-Arabic words,[1] although some have considered them to be Arabic[2] coming from the root of ajja,[3] but this cannot be correct, as they have clearly come to Arabic from Hebrew.[4] As to the origin and etymology of the words, there is no clear consensus on that. One theory, among many,[5] proposes that it comes from Gugu, the cuneiform of Gyges, a king of Lydia. Another suggests it comes from Gāgu, a ruler of the Sakhi region in the north of Assyria. Magog has been said to be mat-gog, or ‘the land of Gog’, mat being Assyrian for ‘land’.[6]
Kharj (tribute) means a payment given as a reward.[7] It is said that kharāj literally refers to that which is extracted from the earth and kharj is that which is given from wealth.[8] Others have said that the two words mean the same thing and both refer to wealth that is given.[9]
EXPOSITION
They said: although they hardly understood each other, they likely spoke through a translator.[10] Probably the translator was someone who lived in nearby lands and could somehow understand their language.[11] Some have suggested that Dhū al-Qarnayn was miraculously given understanding of their language.[12]
O Dhū al-Qarnayn: we might ask: was Dhū al-Qarnayn the name with which these people actually addressed the king (or some equivalent in their own languages)? If so, it would suggest that he was known and referred to with this moniker.
However, it might be prudent not to read too much into that. Certainly, when the Quran relates stories it is hardly ever quoting things verbatim, rather it is conveying the general gist of what was said and summarising it to its most important points. This is why when we read the same stories in different surahs, we often find statements are expressed in different ways. Dhū al-Qarnayn may very well be referred to here with that name, simply because that is the name with which he has been introduced to the audience earlier.
Indeed Gog and Magog: these two nations are well known in the Bible and are linked therein to apocalyptic themes. While there is little that is known about them for certain, the general consensus is that they were nomadic people living in central Asian steppes. For more on them see the Topical Article under this verse.
Are causing corruption in the land: the unnamed tribe feared Gog and Magog, and its people were worried for their safety. They warned Dhū al-Qarnayn regarding them.
As for what corruption they caused, many have said they were cannibals.[13] Others, that they would loot, pillage, and eat anything on their way.[14] Others yet have said that the meaning of the statement is predictive, as in ‘they will cause corruption in the land’.[15] Most likely it is used in a general sense to include all kinds of injustices and evils, killing, stealing, pillaging, and so on.[16] These vicious tribes would invade from beyond the mountain, and cause much grief for the unnamed tribe.
Shall we pay you a tribute: the unnamed tribe must have been in possession of some sort of wealth, perhaps from mining minerals such as iron from the mountains where they lived. They either agreed to pay a one-off tribute for the building of the wall, or more likely some sort of annual or repeated tribute for the upkeep of the wall and manning it with a defensive garrison.
On condition that you build a barrier between them and us: this tribe recognised Dhū al-Qarnayn’s technological might and the engineering skill of his forces. So they beseeched him to build for them a barrier, to patch the crevasse between the natural two barriers of the mountains, and complete the barrier in order to keep away the invaders who would come from beyond the mountains to harangue them.
We could note here in the end how money, payments, and rewards appear in all the stories of the surah. Here Dhū al-Qarnayn is offered a tribute for constructing a wall. Moses (a) on the other hand complained that Khiḍr (a) could have asked for a payment in return for fixing the wall. The People of the Cave sent one of them out with an old coin to buy food. The man with two gardens boasted of his wealth, thinking it made him superior to his companion.
INSIGHTS FROM HADITH
- According to some reports attributed to the Holy Prophet, the wall built by Dhū al-Qarnayn was still standing at his time. It is reported that a man came to the Prophet and said: ‘I have seen the wall of Gog and Magog.’ The Prophet said to him: ‘What was it like?’ He replied: ‘It looked like a dyed cloak.’ The Prophet then said: ‘You have seen it.’[17]
- Like with all things related to the story of Dhū al-Qarnayn, there are many fantastic tales related regarding Gog and Magog and the wall built to contain them. For example in one hadith attributed to the Prophet it is said that each man in the tribes of Gog and Magog had at least a thousand male offspring, and ears so large they would use one as a mattress and the other as a blanket, or that they were as wide as they were tall.[18] In another story attributed to the Prophet it is said that they try to dig through the barrier of Dhū al-Qarnayn every day, only for it to be miraculously restored the next day and them having to start all over again, until one of them finally says ‘we will break through it – God willing – tomorrow’, at which point it is not restored and tomorrow they wake to find it has not been restored.[19] And many other stories like that.[20]
- Many also mention that its destruction and the attack of Gog and Magog is one of the apocalyptic events of the end times. For more see the commentary on verse 98. In one such report it is claimed the Prophet woke at the middle of the night in a fright and Zaynab bint Jaḥsh came to him asking what had happened and he said that a small crack had appeared on the wall built to hold back Gog and Magog. When she enquired if they would fall upon the Muslims, he replied that this would happen if corruption became prevalent.[21] These kinds of narrations most likely have an origin in the Isrāʾīliyyāt and seem to be borrowing from the portrayals of Gog and Magog in that literature.
INSIGHTS FROM OTHER TRADITIONS
- Now these are the generations of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah. And sons were born to them after the flood. The sons of Japheth were Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshek, and Tiras.[22]
- The descendants of Joel: Shemaiah his son, Gog his son, Shimei his son, Micah his son, Reaiah his son, Baal his son, and Beerah his son, whom Tiglath-Pileser king of Assyria took into exile. Beerah was a leader of the Reubenites.[23]
- And the word of the Lord came to me, saying: Son of man, set your face against Gog of the land of Magog, the prince of Rosh, Meshek and Tubal, and prophesy against him, and say: Thus says the Lord God: I am against you, O Gog, the prince of Rosh, Meshek and Tubal. And I will turn you back and put hooks into your jaws, and I will bring you out, and all your army, horses, and horsemen, all of them clothed with all sorts of armor, even a great company with buckler and shield, all of them handling swords.[24]
- Moreover you, son of man, prophesy against Gog and say: Thus says the Lord God: I am against you, O Gog, prince of Rosh, Meshek, and Tubal. And I will turn you back, drive you on, and take you up the north parts and bring you against the mountains of Israel … You shall fall upon the mountains of Israel, you and all your troops and the peoples who are with you. I will give you to the ravenous birds of every sort, and to the beasts of the field to be devoured. You shall fall upon the open field. For I have spoken, says the Lord God. I will send a fire on Magog and among those who dwell safely in the coastlands. Then they shall know that I am the Lord. So I will make My holy name known in the midst of My people Israel. And I will not let them pollute My holy name anymore. And the nations shall know that I am the Lord, the Holy One in Israel.[25]
- Therefore, son of man, prophesy and say to Gog: Thus says the Lord God: On that day when My people of Israel dwell safely, shall you not know it? And you shall come from your place out of the north parts, you and many peoples with you, all of them riding on horses, a great company and a mighty army. And you shall come up against My people of Israel as a cloud to cover the land. It shall come about in the latter days that I will bring you against My land so that the nations may know Me when I shall be sanctified in you, O Gog, before their eyes. Thus says the Lord God: Are you he of whom I have spoken in former days by My servants the prophets of Israel, who prophesied in those days for many years that I would bring you against them? And it shall come to pass at the same time when Gog comes against the land of Israel, says the Lord God, that My fury shall come up in My anger. For in My jealousy and in the fire of My wrath I have spoken: Surely in that day there shall be a great earthquake in the land of Israel. The fish of the sea and the fowl of the heavens and the beasts of the field and all creeping things that creep upon the earth and all the men who are upon the face of the earth shall shake at My presence, and the mountains shall be thrown down, and the steep places shall fall, and every wall shall fall to the ground. I will call for a sword against him on all My mountains, says the Lord God. Every man’s sword shall be against his brother. I will enter into judgment with him with pestilence and with blood. And I will rain upon him and upon his troops and upon the many peoples who are with him, an overflowing rain and hailstones, fire and brimstone. Thus I will magnify Myself, and sanctify Myself, and I will be known in the eyes of many nations. Then they shall know that I am the Lord.[26]
- When the thousand years are ended, Satan will be set free from his prison and will go out to deceive the nations which are in the four corners of the earth, Gog and Magog, to gather them for battle. Their number is like the sand of the sea. They traveled the breadth of the earth and surrounded the camp of the saints and the beloved city. But fire came down from God out of heaven and devoured them.[27]
Note: Unlike the earlier passages, this explicitly indicates that Gog will be destroyed during the end times before the final hour.
TOPICAL ARTICLE
Dhū al-Qarnayn and Gog and Magog
There are three questions of historical interest regarding this topic that should be answered. Firstly, who are Gog and Magog? Secondly, who was the tribe or nation that asked Dhū al-Qarnayn for help? Thirdly, where was the wall that Dhū al-Qarnayn built?
- Who are Gog and Magog?
Gog and Magog are two nations mentioned in the Bible and their names were apparently already known even in pre-Islamic Arabia.[28] In Genesis, Gog is one of the sons of Japheth (Yāfith), the son of Noah (a). In Ezekiel, Gog is a prince and leader of a great army, who leads an invasion against Israel from the lands of Magog. It is also described that they are located in the northern mountainous parts of Israel. In 1 Chronicles one of the descendants of Joel is named Gog.
In Revelation, Gog and Magog are described as nations deceived by Satan in the end times who are numerous ‘like the sand of the sea’, who attack Jerusalem and are eventually destroyed by heavenly fire. For the relevant passages, see the final section.
Hence, there are two portrayals of Gog and Magog; the Old Testament which links them to some warrior nations in the north, and the New Testament which links them to the end times. This same dichotomy is present in the hadith literature as well, which has often shaped the understanding of many exegetes.
They are also mentioned in Sūrat al-Anbiyāʾ: When Gog and Magog are let loose, and they race down from every slope, and the true promise draws near [to its fulfilment], behold, the faithless will look on with a fixed gaze: ‘Woe to us! We have certainly been oblivious of this! Rather, we have been wrongdoers!’ (21:96-67). These verses tell of the corruption in the land that Sūrat al-Kahf warns about, how Gog and Magog will eventually be let loose, when the wall built by Dhū al-Qarnayn fails to hold them back, and then they invade the neighbouring countries. Now today we know that there is no wall of Dhū al-Qarnayn holding back some huge army. Therefore, the apocalyptic invasion of Gog and Magog should not be referring to the end times, but some catastrophic event that has occurred in the past. So the question that remains is not who are Gog and Magog, but who were they.
For eons, the nomad horsemen of the central Asian steppes lived in the vast stretches of grasslands that reached all the way till the north and east of the Caucasus region. The various nomadic tribes that occupied this region were a plague for civilised nations for millennia. The Cimmerians, Scythians, Huns, Mongols, Turks, Cumans, Pechenegs, Magyars, etc., moved like unstoppable tides every few generations, sacking and burning cities, raiding, killing, pillaging, looting, and raping. Truly causing corruption in the land.
In the times preceding the Achaemenid empire, the nomadic Cimmerians were forced from their own lands by the invasion of the Scythians from the east. They flowed south and west towards the Middle-East and Asia Minor, with the Scythians giving them chase. On their way, these two nations took turns sacking all major population centres. These two were perhaps the first of such invasions which would keep repeating for the next two millennia.
The Scythian invasion weakened many of the established nations of the time, including the great empire of the Assyrians, which gave opportunity for the rise of the Achaemenids. To these uncertain times of political fluctuation, when the traditional powers had been pushed to the brink, was born Cyrus II. He quickly conquered the whole region, but knowing the history that gave cause to his rise, he was surely wary of a renewed invasion by nomads from beyond the Caucasus mountains.
Given this, it would not be surprising at all that a shrewd and intelligent leader and strategist such as Cyrus was to have built a wall to reduce the risk of invasions; invasions that would no doubt cause immense harm to the empire he had forged. In fact, as history attests, all future rulers of the area invested in fortifying and guarding the Caucasus against northern invasions. It is similarly to be expected that Alexander of Macedon, who was surely equally astute as Cyrus in such matters and very much as fond of construction as he was of conquest, had also taken note of the significance of this region. Hence, the association of these fortifications with Alexander could very well be due to him investing in fortifying that region.
We could note that Muslim exegetes have identified Gog and Magog to be the descendants of Japhet (Yāfith), saying that the ‘Turks’ are descended from them.[29] The former statement is of course based on the Bible. We find that Josephus also identifies the ‘Magogites’ as the descendants of Japhet the son of Noah (a) – as mentioned in Genesis 10 – but further specifies them as those ‘who are by the Greeks called Scythians’.[30] It is said the term ‘Scythian’ has been a generic term for many tribes and nations living in that region.[31] Perhaps in this case ‘Turk’ could also be seen as a generic term for the nomadic tribes of the steppes.
Herodotus describes the Scythians as follows: ‘For eight-and-twenty years then the Scythians were rulers of Asia, and by their unruliness and reckless behaviour everything was ruined; for on the one hand they exacted that in tribute from each people which they laid upon them, and apart from the tribute they rode about and carried off by force the possessions of each tribe.’[32]
In conclusion, considering that the most likely candidate for Dhū al-Qarnayn is Cyrus then the context would suggest that Gog and Magog refer to the Cimmerians and Scythians. Importantly, the Cimmerians are said to have invaded through the Darial Pass, and the Scythians came in through Darband.[33] The most likely locations of the wall of Dhū al-Qarnayn[34] would then support this theory. The only problem with this is that the Cimmerian-Scythian invasions took place before the time of Cyrus, although for example the later Achaemenid king Darius led a major campaign against them.[35] These nomad nations were always in flux though, as the Scythians were assimilated into the Sarmatians (sometimes still being called Scythians) who in turn later either joined confederations or melded into other tribes such as the Vandals, Goths, and Huns, who lead major invasions into more settled civilisations and their urban centres.
Hence, another likely possibility is that ‘Gog and Magog’ is a generic name for all those various tribes of the central Asian steppes, which descended in swarms upon the Middle-East, Asia Minor, and Europe. Makārim Shīrāzī seems to favour this, when he broadly states that says they were people living north of the Caucasus.[36]
Lastly, as we noted, it is possible that the description of the previous verse, a people who could hardly understand a word, might be referring to Gog and Magog. If we say they were the Scythians, in that case the difficulty in communication would be due to the obscurity of the Scythian language(s). Unfortunately, we know very little about Scythian, as there are no texts in that language, and only their neighbours have written about them. These texts merely record some names of people and tribes. All of this indicates their neighbours had a very poor understanding of Scythian.[37] Perhaps this is what the verse means, that their neighbours had a hard time communicating with the Scythians; and God knows best.
- Who were the people or tribe that asked Dhū al-Qarnayn for help?
While some have identified the tribe or nation asking for help as being Turks,[38] in reality we do not know exactly who they were, although as we shall see they were probably a group somewhere in the Caucasus region at the time of Cyrus.
Having said that, a passage in Herodotus is interesting: ‘As far as the country of these Scythians the whole land which has been described is level plain and has a deep soil; but after this point it is stony and rugged. Then when one has passed through a great extent of this rugged country, there dwell in the skirts of lofty mountains men who are said to be all bald-headed from their birth, male and female equally, and who have flat noses and large chins and speak a language of their own, using the Scythian manner of dress, and living on the produce of trees … and they possess no weapon of war. These are they also who decide the disputes rising among their neighbours; and besides this, whatever fugitive takes refuge with them is injured by no one: and they are called Argippaians. Now as far as these bald-headed men there is abundantly clear information about the land and about the nations on this side of them; for not only do certain of the Scythians go to them … and those of the Scythians who go to them transact their business through seven interpreters and in seven different languages … So far as these, I say, the land is known; but concerning the region to the North of the bald-headed men no one can speak with certainty, for lofty and impassable mountains divide it off, and no one passes over them.’[39] This fits nicely with the Quranic description, but as we can see, Herodotus claims the Argippaians lived somewhere beyond even the Scythians. Well, such descriptions may be repeated here more for curiosity’s sake than anything else, as the descriptions of Herodotus of faraway nations is generally obscure and often mixed with fantasy.
- Where is the wall of Dhū al-Qarnayn?
The identification of the wall built by Dhū al-Qarnayn is something that at first seems simple enough, however it has proven quite tricky. It seems simple, because the Quran has given a nice enough description of the wall that narrows it down, however it is tricky because no such clear equivalent has been found. This is further exacerbated by the fact that there are so many legends mixed up with the account of Dhū al-Qarnayn (and Alexander, who is often mistakenly presumed to be Dhū al-Qarnayn) that makes sifting fact from fiction a challenge.
We know three things with certainty about the wall. Firstly, it should be located between two mountains (verse 93). Secondly, it should have copper and iron utilised in its construction (verse 96). Thirdly, it should have acted as a block that would have prevented invasions (verse 94).
According to what we said earlier, the most likely candidate for the region where the wall was built is the Caucasian mountain range. This mountain range acted as a natural barrier that blocked passage of the nomadic steppe tribes living to the north of it. It had two major passages, at Darial and Derbent, both of which have been historically fortified. Darial and Derbent were basically the only two viable routes for hostile forces to enter into the fertile southern regions and its major population centres. This is why rulers of the region expended significant efforts to control and fortify it. Much like the tribe beseeching Dhū al-Qarnayn for help, the Romans too paid the Persians tribute to guard the Caucasian mountain passes.[40]
Many early exegetes already identified the wall as being located between the mountainous regions of Armenia and Azerbaijan.[41] Ṭūsī relates the opinion that it is the fortress of Derbent.[42] Tabatabai argues it is a wall in Asia that separates northern Asia from southern Asia. More specifically he considers the Darial Pass as a likely candidate.[43] Tabatabai also points to the fortification of the Darial Pass as possibly being the wall constructed by Dhū al-Qarnayn, saying it is located between two mountains and claiming it has copper utilised in it.[44] Makārim Shīrāzī also claims an iron wall can still be found there. He also points out that the Kur (or Kura) river flows very close to that place. It was known as the Cyrus river in ancient Greek. He also points out that in ancient Armenian the wall at Darial Pass was known as Bahāg Gurāʾī meaning ‘Cyrus Pass’.[45] Pliny the Elder also makes reference to the river Cyrus which he says flows into the Caspian Sea.[46] The description of Pliny fits well with the Darial Fort, even though no trace of it remains.[47] All this fits with the Biblical descriptions as well, which tell of Gog and Magog living to the north.
Pliny also describes walls in the Caucasus mountains which he names the Gates of the Caucasus and says that some have mistakenly called these the Caspian Gates. He describes the gates: ‘At this spot are gates barred up with beams shod with iron, while beneath the middle there runs a stream which emits a most fetid odour;[48] on this side of it is a rock, defended by a fortress, the name of which is Cumania, erected for the purpose of preventing the passage of the innumerable tribes that lie beyond. Here, then, we may see the habitable world severed into two parts by a pair of gates.’[49]
As we had mentioned, Herodotus describes Persian rule as extending all the way to the Caucasus mountains, but not beyond.[50] We also know that in this region the Achaemenids built a series of fortresses to guard against a northern invasion.[51] This would fit with Cyrus being Dhū al-Qarnayn.
Conversely, when Jerome of Stridon (d. 420 CE) recounts the invasion of the Huns across the Caucasus, he makes mention of the ‘Gate of Alexander’, which barred their invasion.[52] Josephus identifies Gog and Magog as the Alans, that is the Alans from which the name Dār-i Ālān, or Darial Pass comes. He then says that Alexander built ‘iron gates’ to seal a passage and block the Scythians (Alans) from invading, as they had previously done to the Medes.[53]
In such accounts it is implied or explicated that Alexander built the walls. However, the much more likely option is that it was Cyrus who built them, as he is the likelier candidate for Dhū al-Qarnayn. We could nevertheless say that Alexander simply rebuilt what had been previously built by Cyrus and previous kings and the construction was then later attributed to him for that reason. Or that he constructed a new set of walls in the same location. Regardless, historically, there is no record of him building any fortifications in that area.[54]
Another viewpoint would be to see this as a ‘true account’ of what preceded. While the fiction of the Alexander Romance had attributed the building of the ‘Alexander Gates’ to him, we might see the Quran as correcting that account and explaining that it was in fact Dhū al-Qarnayn Cyrus who constructed them long before him. In this sense the ending of this story is very much similar to the ending of the story of the People of the Cave, where God corrects some misconceptions about the famous story in circulation at the time.
In any case, the location itself fits very well with the description in the Quran, and the pass that runs between the two mountains truly makes them look like saddayn, or two immense barriers, as is evident from old paintings. Regrettably, the Darial Pass of today is a changed landscape, as it has been blasted by Russian engineers in 1857 and later Soviet engineers who constructed pipelines through it.[55]
We could also note that in the travel account of Sallām the interpreter, the caliph al-Wāthiq saw a dream in which the barrier built by Dhū al-Qarnayn had been breached. He then sent Sallām with a company of soldiers north to investigate. Sallām travelled to Armenia, to the lands of the Alans and from there to the land of the Khazars where he reached a mountainous terrain that they traversed for many days until they reached a mountain gorge. There he saw a barrier built of iron bricks and copper 200 cubits wide (about 100 meters) and reaching very high. The gate had verse 98 written on it.[56] The authenticity of Sallām’s account has been questioned,[57] but it serves as further indication that the region of the Caucasus has been associated with Dhū al-Qarnayn’s wall for some time.[58]
As for the current state of the fortifications, the archaeological study of the Darial Pass has been hindered by the difficulty of the location, but there exists evidence of long-time use and garrisons there. However, the excavations did not find traces of iron or copper utilised in their construction. The remains of the fort that can be found now was most likely built after the invasion of the Huns. This does not mean another wall or fort did not exist there before, as that would require further excavations into the deeper layers, which has not been done yet.[59]
Considering the antiquity of the wall, it is likely that any metal utilised in the building of the wall would have been scavenged in later centuries, leaving little trace of the original structure; much like the Colossus of Rhodes. This is a possible meaning of He will level it (verse 98).[60] Although it is possible that future excavations may reveal more information about this.
Other opinions on Gog and Magog
As we mentioned, following the Biblical account, some exegetes have said Gog and Magog are the descendants of Japheth (Yāfith) son of Noah. This is mentioned in some dubious reports as well.[61] Others have said they are the Turks living in the farthest reaches of the north.[62] Or that Gog are Turks and Magog are Daylamites.[63] Others yet have claimed that Dhū al-Qarnayn was a descendant of Japhet.[64]
Other theories also abound. For example Tabatabai identifies them as Mongols.[65] He also says in more general that they may have been the various nomadic groups of the Eurasian steppe, which frequently raided China.[66] He relates as well the claim that they were the Tatars, who invaded many other lands during the seventh century AH, killing thousands and sacking many important cities.[67]
In some reports it is said that they were humans, but not descended from Adam (a).[68] It is even claimed that they are the most numerous in creation after the angels.[69]
Other opinions on the wall
The wall has also been identified in various regions of the globe. Some have identified it as the Great Wall of China.[70] In another claim that identifies Dhū al-Qarnayn as a Himyarite king, the wall is said to be the dam and fortress that was constructed at Marib (Maʾārib) in Yemen.[71]
[1] Tibyan, 7/91; Zamakhshari, 2/746; Alusi, 8/360; Tantawi, 8/573.
[2] See Tibyan, 7/91.
[3] Razi, 21/499; Baghawi, 3/214. Rāzī attributes this opinion to Kisāʾī and Quṭaybī. There are different suggestions proposed as to what this means, all relating to quick movement. One is that it comes from taʾajjuj al-nār, meaning how a flame flickers, because they moved quickly from one place to another. A similar comes from ajja fī mashyihi, meaning to jog quickly. And some other similar opinions.
[4] Arthur Jeffries, Foreign Vocabulary of the Quran (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 288-289.
[5] See for example S H Hooke, ‘Gog and Magog’ in The Expository Times, (April 1915), vol. 26, Issue 7, pp. 317-319.
[7] Tibyan, 7/90.
[8] Tibyan, 7/91; Tabrisi, 6/763. Other differences have also been mentioned such as kharaj being a one-off payment, whereas kharāj is paid repeatedly (Alusi, 8/361).
[9] Muhit, 7/226; Tantawi, 8/574.
[10] Thalabi, 6/193; Baghawi, 3/214; Munyah, 17/80.
[11] Alusi, 8/359.
[12] Tabrisi, 6/762-763.
[13] Tibyan, 7/91; Tabrisi, 6/763; Tabari, 16/14; Zamakhshari, 2/746.
[14] Thalabi, 6/193; Razi, 21/499.
[15] Tibyan, 7/91; Tabrisi, 6/763; Tabari, 16/14.
[16] Razi, 21/499; Qurtubi, 11/56; Mizan, 13/363.
[17] Tibyan, 7/94; Suyuti, 4/250.
[18] Tabrisi, 6/763; Tabari, 16/19; Thalabi, 6/193-196.; Qurtubi, 11/56-57. Thaʿlabī also attributes this to Imam Ali (a). See also Bukhari, 4/110.
[19] Tabari, 16/18; Qurtubi, 11/57; Ahmad, 2/510-511; Ibn Majah, 2/1364-1365, h. 4080; Tabrisi, 6/764; Nur, 3/309.
[20] For some of these see Suyuti, 4/249-251.
[21] Bukhari, 4/109; Muslim, 8/165-166; Ibn Majah, 2/1305, h. 3953.
[22] Genesis 10:1-2.
[23] 1 Chronicles 5:4-6.
[24] Ezekiel 38:1-4.
[25] Ezekiel 39:1-7.
[26] Ezekiel 38:14-23
[27] Revelation 20:7-9.
[28] Arthur Jeffries, Foreign Vocabulary of the Quran (Leiden: Brill, 2007), p. 288.
[29] Tibyan, 7/91; Tabrisi, 6/763.
[30] Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book 1, Chapter 8. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm#link2HCH0006. Others have also made the same identification, such as Jerome of Stridon. See Emeri van Donzel and Andrea Schmidt, Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources (Leiden: Brill, 2009), p. 13.
[31] Emeri van Donzel and Andrea Schmidt, Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources (Leiden: Brill, 2009), p. 12.
[32] Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, (trans. G. C. Macaulay) Book 1, p. 106. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2707/2707-h/2707-h.htm
[33] John Andrew Boyle, ‘Alexander and the Mongols’ in Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 24, No.1/2 (1980), pp. 18-35.
[34] See below.
[35] This campaign was an important lesson in why walls were the only hope against such foes. When Darius invaded the Scythian homelands they simply retreated to other pastures. There were no cities to capture which would force a fight and the nomads could simply keep up their war of attrition indefinitely.
[36] Nemuneh, 12/552. See also Mudarrisi, 6/479
[37] Rüdiger Schmitt, ‘Scythian Language’ in Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition (2018). Accessed at: http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythian-language
[38] Zamakhshari, 2/746; Suyuti, 4/249.
[39] Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, (trans. G. C. Macaulay) Book 4, pp. 23-25. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2707/2707-h/2707-h.htm
[40] Eberhard W. Sauer et al., ‘Northern outpost of the Caliphate: Maintaining military forces in a hostile environment (the Dariali Gorge in the Central Caucasus in Georgia)’ in Antiquity, (August 2015), pp. 885-904.
[41] Tibyan, 7/94; Tabrisi, 6/764; Razi, 21/498; Baydawi, 3/292; Qurtubi, 11/55; Tantawi, 8/573. This opinion has also been attributed to Ibn Abbas (Suyuti, 4/249) and al-Ḍaḥḥāk (Tabari, 16/21). Ālūsī questions the attribution to Ibn Abbas (Alusi, 8/359).
[42] Tibyan, 7/94; Tabrisi, 6/764.
[43] Mizan, 13/381, 394-395. A similar opinion is also found in Sharawi, p. 8993.
[44] Mizan, 13/394-395.
[45] Nemuneh, 12/549-550. See also Mudarrisi, 6/475-476.
[46] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History of Pliny, Vol. VI, Chapter 10. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/60230/60230-h/60230-h.htm
[47] E W Sauer, L Chologauri, D Naskidashvili, ‘Late Antique and Medieval Fortifications in the Dariali Gorge’ in Archaeological Heritage of the Caucasus (Makhachkala, 2020), pp. 456-458.
[48] The river at Darial Pass is odourless today, although it has been speculated that the smell may have been mistakenly attributed to it because of sulphur springs in the area. See Eberhard Sauer, Lana Chologauri and Davit Naskidashvili ‘The Caspian Gates: Exploring the Most Famous Mountain Valley of the Ancient World’ in Current World Archaeology, Issue 80, pp. 18-24.
[49] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History of Pliny, Vol. VI, Chapter 12. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/60230/60230-h/60230-h.htm
[50] Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, (trans. G. C. Macaulay) Book 3, p. 98. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2707/2707-h/2707-h.htm. It should be noted that Herodotus admits he passes over in silence over most of Cyrus’ career, mentioning only some selections. Herodotus, The History of Herodotus, (trans. G. C. Macaulay) Book 1, p. 177.
[51] Wolfgang Messerschmidt, ‘The Caucasus Region’ in A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire (New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell, 2021), pp. 671-679.
[52] Emeri van Donzel and Andrea Schmidt, Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources (Leiden: Brill, 2009), p. 13.
[53] Flavius Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, Book 7, Chapter 7. Accessed at: https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2850/2850-h/2850-h.htm
[54] Andrew Runni Anderson, ‘Alexander at the Caspian Gates’, in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 59 (1928), pp. 130-163.
[55] Eberhard Sauer, Lana Chologauri and Davit Naskidashvili ‘The Caspian Gates: Exploring the Most Famous Mountain Valley of the Ancient World’ in Current World Archaeology, Issue 80, pp. 18-24.
[56] Yāqūt al-Ḥimawī, Muʿjam al-Buldān (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, 1979), 3/199-200, 1/294-297; ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Jawzī, al-Muntaẓam fī Taʾrīkh al-Umam wa al-Mulūk (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyyah, 1992), Emeri van Donzel and Andrea Schmidt, Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources (Leiden: Brill, 2009), pp. 133-151. See also Razi, 21/498.
[57] Alusi, 8/363; Aḥmad ibn Muhammad al-Hamdhānī, al-Buldān, (Beirut: ʿĀlam al-Kutub, 1996), p. 21.
[58] See also ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Khaldūn, Tārīkh (Beirut: Dār Iḥyāʾ al-Turāth al-ʿArabī, n.d.), 1/44-45, where he identifies the ‘wall of Gog and Magog’ as being located in that region.
[59] Eberhard Sauer, Lana Chologauri and Davit Naskidashvili ‘The Caspian Gates: Exploring the Most Famous Mountain Valley of the Ancient World’ in Current World Archaeology, Issue 80, pp. 18-24. The excavations on which the cited article is based were done in 2016.
[60] Mizan, 13/398, although Tabatabai considers this option less likely.
[61] Baghawi, 3/214. Qurṭubī mentions a report from Abū Hurayrah that attributes this claim to the Prophet (Qurtubi, 11/56). In a report attributed to Imam al-ʿAskarī (a), it has been said that Gog and Magog and the Turks were descended from Japheth (Nur, 3/307).
[62] Tibyan, 7/91; Qurtubi, 11/57-58; Muhit, 7/219.
[63] Razi, 21/499; Muhit, 7/225.
[64] Tabari, 16/14; Baghawi, 3/212-215; Thalabi, 6/193; Qurtubi, 11/45. Some of these have reported a fiction from Kaʿb al-Aḥbār, where he claims that they were the children of Adam (a) through other than Eve. One day he had an emission of semen in his sleep and that mixed with the dirt and gave rise to Gog and Magog.
[65] Mizan, 13/395; Mudarrisi, 6/479. See also John Andrew Boyle, ‘Alexander and the Mongols’ in Central Asiatic Journal, Vol. 24, No.1/2 (1980), pp. 18-35. Boyle suggests it is possible that the word Mongol derives from Magog, saying: ‘They call themselves Magoli; a corruption of Magogli.’
[66] Mizan, 13/381.
[67] Mizan, 13/396.
[68] This has been attributed to Imam Ali (a). See Nur, 3/307.
[69] Qummi, 2/41.
[70] Mizan, 13/381.
[71] Mizan, 13/388; Nemuneh, 12/543.